Overview

This book provides the whole spectrum of polysaccharides from basic concepts to commercial market applications. Chapters cover various types of sources, classification, properties, characterization, processing, rheology and fabrication of polysaccharide-based materials and their composites and gels. The applications of polysaccharides include in cosmetics, food science, drug delivery, biomedicine, biofuel production, marine, packaging, chromatography and environmental remediation. It also reviews the fabrication of inorganic and carbon nanomaterials from polysaccharides. The book incorporates industrial applications and will fill the gap between the exploration works in the laboratory and viable applications in related ventures.

Full Product Details

Author:   Inamuddin ,  Mohd Imran Ahamed (Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India) ,  Rajender Boddula (National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST, Beijing)) ,  Tariq Altalhi
Publisher:   John Wiley & Sons Inc
Imprint:   Wiley-Scrivener
Dimensions:   Width: 1.00cm , Height: 1.00cm , Length: 1.00cm
Weight:   0.454kg
ISBN:  

9781119711384

ISBN 10:   111971138
Pages:   784
Publication Date:   24 August 2021
Audience:   Professional and scholarly ,  Professional & Vocational
Format:   Hardback
Publisher's Status:   Active
Availability:   Out of stock  
The supplier is temporarily out of stock of this item. It will be ordered for you on backorder and shipped when it becomes available.

Table of Contents

Preface xxiii 1 Natural Polysaccharides From Aloe vera L. Gel (Aloe barbadensis Miller): Processing Techniques and Analytical Methods 1 Silvana Teresa Lacerda Jales, Raquel de Melo Barbosa, Girliane Regina da Silva, Patricia Severino and Tulio Flávio Accioly de Lima Moura 1.1 Introduction 2 1.1.1 Gel Composition from A. vera 3 1.2 Applications of A. vera Mucilaginous Gel or Fractions 5 1.3 Aloe vera Gel Processing 5 1.3.1 Obtaining Polysaccharide Fraction or Acemannan 8 1.4 Analytical Methods Applied 9 1.4.1 Total Carbohydrates, Oligosaccharides, Acemannan and Free Sugars 9 1.4.2 Analytical Techniques 12 1.4.2.1 Chromatography Analysis 12 1.4.2.2 Infrared Spectroscopy (IR) 13 1.4.2.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy 14 1.4.2.4 Mass Spectrometry 15 1.4.2.5 Ultraviolet–Visible Spectroscopy 16 1.4.2.6 Comprehensive Microarray Polymer Profiling 16 1.5 Conclusion 17 References 17 2 Cell Wall Polysaccharides 23 Ata Ullah, Lutufur Rahman, Muhammad Bilal Yazdani, Muhammad Irfan, Waheed S. Khan and Asma Rehman 2.1 Introduction to Cell Wall 23 2.2 Plant Cell Wall Polysaccharides 24 2.2.1 Cellulose 24 2.2.2 Hemicellulose 25 2.2.2.1 Xyloglucan 25 2.2.2.2 Xylans 25 2.2.2.3 Mannans 26 2.2.3 Callose 26 2.2.4 Pectic Polysaccharides 26 2.2.4.1 Homogalacturonan (HG) 27 2.2.4.2 Arabinan 27 2.3 Algal Cell Wall Polysaccharides 28 2.3.1 Alginates 28 2.3.2 Sulfated Galactans 28 2.3.3 Fucoidans 30 2.4 Fungal Cell Wall Polysaccharides 30 2.4.1 Glucan 31 2.4.2 Chitin and Chitosan 31 2.5 Bacterial Cell Wall Polysaccharides 32 2.5.1 Peptidoglycan 32 2.5.2 Lipopolysaccharides 33 References 33 3 Marine Polysaccharides: Properties and Applications 37 Tonmoy Ghosh, Rabinder Singh, Asha Arumugam Nesamma and Pannaga Pavan Jutur 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 Polysaccharide Origins 38 3.3 Properties 38 3.3.1 Cellulose 38 3.3.2 Chitosan 40 3.3.3 Alginate 41 3.3.4 Carrageenan 41 3.3.5 Agar 41 3.3.6 Porphyran 42 3.3.7 Fucoidan 42 3.3.8 Ulvan 42 3.3.9 Exopolysaccharides From Microalgae 43 3.4 Applications of Polysaccharides 44 3.4.1 Biomedical Applications 44 3.4.1.1 Cellulose 44 3.4.1.2 Chitosan 44 3.4.1.3 Alginate 45 3.4.2 Food Applications 45 3.4.2.1 Cellulose 45 3.4.2.2 Chitosan 46 3.4.2.3 Alginates 46 3.4.2.4 Carrageenan 47 3.4.2.5 Agar 47 3.4.3 Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical Applications 47 3.4.3.1 Cellulose 47 3.4.3.2 Chitosan 47 3.4.3.3 Alginate 48 3.4.3.4 Carrageenan 48 3.4.3.5 Porphyran 49 3.4.3.6 Fucoidan 49 3.4.4 Agriculture 50 3.5 Conclusions 50 References 51 4 Seaweed Polysaccharides: Structure, Extraction and Applications 61 Oya Irmak Şahin 4.1 Introduction 61 4.1.1 Agar 62 4.1.2 Carrageenan 63 4.1.3 Alginate (Alginic Acid, Algin) 65 4.1.4 Fucoidan 67 4.1.5 Laminaran 68 4.1.6 Ulvan 69 4.2 Conclusion 70 References 70 5 Agars: Properties and Applications 75 Sudhakar Padmesh and Aditi Singh 5.1 History and Origin of Agar 75 5.1.1 Agarophytes Used in Agar Manufacturing 76 5.2 Physical Properties of Agar Producing Seaweeds 76 5.3 Agar Manufacturing 78 5.3.1 Types of Agar Manufacturing 78 5.3.1.1 Freeze–Thaw Method 78 5.3.1.2 Syneresis Method 78 5.4 Structure of Agar 79 5.5 Heterogeneity of Agar 80 5.6 Physico-Chemical Characteristics of Agar 80 5.7 Chemical Characteristics of Agar 82 5.8 Factors Influencing the Characteristics of Agar 83 5.8.1 Techniques to Analyze the Fine Chemical Structure of Agar 85 5.8.2 Synergies and Antagonisms of Agar Gels 86 5.9 Uses of Agar in Various Sectors 87 5.9.1 Applications of Agar in Food Industry 88 5.9.2 Application of Agar in Harvesting Insects and Worms 89 5.9.3 Vegetable Tissue Culture Formulations 90 5.9.4 Culture Media for Microbes 91 5.9.5 Industrial Applications of Agar 91 5.10 Conclusion and Discussion 91 References 92 6 Biopolysaccharides: Properties and Applications 95 Sinem Tunçer 6.1 Structure and Classification of Biopolysaccharides 95 6.1.1 Structure 95 6.1.2 Classification 97 6.1.3 Structural Characterization Techniques 98 6.2 Uses and Applications of Biopolysaccharides 99 6.2.1 Functional Fibers 100 6.2.2 Biomedicine 101 6.2.2.1 Tissue Engineering 102 6.2.2.2 Wound Healing 107 6.2.2.3 Drug Loading and Delivery 110 6.2.2.4 Therapeutics 114 6.2.3 Cosmetics 115 6.2.4 Foods and Food Ingredients 116 6.2.5 Biofuels 119 6.2.6 Wastewater Treatment 120 6.2.7 Textiles 121 6.3 Conclusion 122 References 123 7 Chitosan Derivatives: Properties and Applications 135 Gincy Marina Mathew, Sarah Bill Ulaeto, Reshmy R., Rajeev Kumar Sukumaran, Parameswaran Binod, Ashok Pandey and Raveendran Sindhu 7.1 Introduction 135 7.2 Properties of Chitosan Derivatives 142 7.2.1 Physiochemical Properties 142 7.2.2 Functional Properties 143 7.2.3 Biological Properties of Chitosan 144 7.3 Applications of Chitosan Derivatives 145 7.3.1 Anticancer Agents 145 7.3.2 Bone Tissue Material Formation 147 7.3.3 Wound Healing, Tissue Regeneration and Antimicrobial Resistance 148 7.3.4 Drug Delivery 149 7.3.5 Chromatographic Separations 150 7.3.6 Waste Management 150 7.3.7 Food Industry 151 7.3.8 In Cosmetics 152 7.3.9 In Paint as Antifouling Coatings 152 7.4 Conclusions 152 Acknowledgement 153 References 153 8 Green Seaweed Polysaccharides Inventory of Nador Lagoon in North East Morocco 163 El Asri Ouahid, Ramdani Mohamed and Fadlaoui Soufiane 8.1 Introduction 163 8.2 Nador Lagoon: Situation and Characteristics 164 8.3 Seaweed 165 8.4 Polysaccharides in Seaweed 166 8.5 Algae Polysaccharides in Nador Lagoon’s Seaweed 167 8.5.1 C. prolifera 167 8.5.1.1 Sulfated Galactans 168 8.5.2 U. rigida & E. intestinalis 168 8.5.2.1 Ulvan 169 8.5.3 C. adhaerens, C. bursa, C. tomentosum 170 8.5.3.1 Sulfated Arabinans 170 8.5.3.2 Sulfated Arabinogalactans 170 8.5.3.3 Mannans 171 8.6 Conclusion 172 References 172 9 Salep Glucomannan: Properties and Applications 177 Abdullah Kurt 9.1 Introduction 177 9.2 Production 179 9.3 Composition and Physicochemical Structure 181 9.4 Rheological Properties 183 9.5 Purification and Deacetylation 188 9.6 Food Applications 191 9.6.1 Beverage 191 9.6.2 Ice Cream and Emulsion Stabilizing 192 9.6.3 Edible Film/Coating 194 9.6.4 Gelation 195 9.7 Health Benefits 196 9.8 Conclusions and Future Trends 197 References 198 10 Exudate Tree Gums: Properties and Applications 205 Aruna Jyothi Kora 10.1 Introduction 205 10.1.1 Gum Arabic 206 10.1.2 Gum Karaya 208 10.1.3 Gum Kondagogu 209 10.1.4 Gum Ghatti 209 10.1.5 Gum Tragacanth 210 10.1.6 Gum Olibanum 211 10.2 Nanobiotechnology Applications 211 10.3 Minor Tree Gums 214 10.4 Conclusions 214 Acknowledgment 217 References 218 11 Cellulose and its Derivatives: Properties and Applications 221 Rafael de Avila Delucis, Pedro Henrique Gonzalez de Cademartori, André Ricardo Fajardo and Sandro Campos Amico 11.1 Introduction 221 11.2 Main Raw Materials 222 11.3 Composition and Chemical Structure of Lignocellulosic Materials 224 11.4 Cellulose: Chemical Backbone and Crystalline Formats 225 11.5 Cellulose Extraction 228 11.5.1 Mechanical Methods 228 11.5.2 Chemical Methods 231 11.6 Cellulose Products and its Derivatives 232 11.7 Main Applications 236 11.8 Conclusion 241 References 242 12 Starch and its Derivatives: Properties and Applications 253 Bhanita Goswami and Debajyoti Mahanta 12.1 Introduction 253 12.2 Physicochemical and Functional Properties of Starch 254 12.2.1 Size, Morphology and Crystallinity of Starch Granules 255 12.2.2 Physical Properties due to Associated Lipids, Proteins and Phosphorus With Starch Granules 257 12.2.3 Solubility and Swelling Capacity of Starch 257 12.2.4 Gelatinization and Retrogradation of Starch 258 12.2.5 Birefringence and Glass Transition Temperature of Starch 259 12.2.6 Rheological and Thermal Properties of Starch 260 12.2.7 Transmittance and Opacity of Starch 260 12.2.8 Melt Processability of Starch 261 12.3 Modification of Starch 261 12.3.1 Physical Modification of Starch 262 12.3.2 Chemical Modification of Starch 263 12.3.3 Dual Modification of Starch 265 12.3.4 Enzymatic Modification of Starch 265 12.3.5 Genetic Modification of Starch 265 12.4 Application of Starch and its Derivatives 266 12.4.1 In Food Industry 266 12.4.2 In Paper Industry 266 12.4.3 Starch as Binders 267 12.4.4 In Detergent Products 267 12.4.5 As Biodegradable Thermoplastic Materials or Bioplastics 267 12.4.6 In Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Industries 268 12.4.7 As Industrial Raw Materials 269 12.4.8 As Adsorbents for Environmental Applications 269 12.4.9 As Food Packaging Materials 269 12.4.10 In Drug Delivery 270 12.4.11 As Antimicrobial Films and Coatings 270 12.4.12 In Advanced Functional Materials 271 12.5 Conclusion 273 References 274 13 Crystallization of Polysaccharides 283 Mohsen Khodadadi Yazdi, Farzad Seidi, Yongcan Jin, Payam Zarrintaj, Huining Xiao, Amin Esmaeili, Sajjad Habibzadeh and Mohammad Reza Saeb 13.1 Introduction 283 13.2 Principles of Crystallization of Polysaccharides 285 13.3 Techniques for Crystallinity Measurement 287 13.4 Crystallization Behavior of Polysaccharides 287 13.4.1 Cellulose 287 13.4.2 Chitosan and Chitin 290 13.4.3 Starch 291 13.5 Polymer/Polysaccharide Crystalline Nanocomposites 293 13.6 Conclusion 293 References 294 14 Polysaccharides as Novel Materials for Tissue Engineering Applications 301 Nandini A. Pattanashetti, Anand I. Torvi, Arun K. Shettar, Pramod B. Gai and Mahadevappa Y. Kariduraganavar 14.1 Introduction 301 14.2 Types of Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 303 14.3 Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering 304 14.4 Polysaccharide-Based Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering 305 14.4.1 Alginate-Based Scaffolds 306 14.4.2 Chitosan-Based Scaffolds 307 14.4.3 Cellulose-Based Scaffolds 309 14.4.4 Dextran and Pullulan-Based Scaffolds 310 14.4.5 Starch-Based Scaffolds 311 14.4.6 Xanthan-Based Scaffolds 312 14.4.7 Glycosaminoglycans-Based Scaffolds 313 14.5 Current Challenges and Future Perspectives 316 Acknowledgements 317 References 317 15 Structure and Solubility of Polysaccharides 325 Vickramjeet Singh, Shikha Indoria, K.J. Jisha and Ramesh L. Gardas 15.1 Introduction 325 15.2 Polysaccharide Structure and Solubility in Water 326 15.3 Solubility and Molecular Weight 329 15.4 Solubility and Branching 330 15.5 Polysaccharide Solutions 332 15.6 Conclusions 334 Acknowledgments 334 References 334 16 Polysaccharides: An Efficient Tool for Fabrication of Carbon Nanomaterials 337 Yuliya Dzyazko and Vladimir Ogenko 16.1 Introduction 337 16.2 Aerogels 338 16.2.1 Plant and Bacterial Cellulose 339 16.2.2 Carbon Derived From Nanocrystalline Cellulose of Plant Origin 344 16.2.3 Carbon Aerogels Produced From Bacterial Cellulose 348 16.2.4 Chitosan and Sodium Alginate for Preparation of Carbon Aerogels 350 16.3 Graphene-Like Materials and Nanotubes Produced From Polysaccharides 352 16.4 Biocarbon Quantum Dots 355 16.5 Membranes Containing Carbon Nanoparticles Derived From Cellulose 356 16.6 Conclusions 358 References 358 17 Rheology and Structural Properties of Polysaccharides 367 Andreea Irina Barzic 17.1 Introduction 367 17.2 General Structural Features of Polysaccharides 368 17.3 Main Types of Polysaccharides and Their Structural Properties 370 17.4 Rheological Behavior of Polysaccharides 374 17.4.1 Semi-Diluted and Concentrated Solutions of Polysaccharides 374 17.4.2 Gels of Polysaccharides 375 17.4.3 Polysaccharide Liquid Crystals 377 17.5 Conclusions 379 References 379 18 Gums-Based Bionanostructures for Medical Applications 385 Hira Munir, Muhammad Bilal, Muhammad Imran Khan and Hafiz M.N. Iqbal 18.1 Plants and Their Bioactive Compounds 386 18.2 Natural Gums—Physicochemical Features 386 18.3 Sources of Natural Gums 387 18.3.1 Exudate Gums 387 18.3.2 Mucilages 387 18.3.3 Seaweed Polysaccharides 388 18.3.4 Microbial Polysaccharides 388 18.3.5 Animal Polysaccharide 388 18.3.6 Other Sources of Polysaccharide Gums 388 18.4 Classification of Gums 388 18.4.1 According to the Charge 388 18.4.2 According to the Source 389 18.4.3 According to Shape 389 18.4.4 According to Monomeric Units in Chemical Structure 389 18.4.5 Semi-Synthetic Gums 390 18.5 Composition of Natural Gums 390 18.6 Extraction and Purification of Natural Gums 390 18.7 Modification and Hydrolysis of Natural Gums 390 18.8 Medical Applications of Gums-Based Bio-Nanostructures 390 18.8.1 Conductive Adhesive Properties and Pharmaceutical Applications 391 18.8.2 Application in Imaging and Cell Studies 393 18.8.3 Application in Sutures 393 18.8.4 Biomaterials for Implantation 394 18.9 Conclusions 395 References 395 19 Alginates: Properties and Applications 399 Sapna Raghav, Pallavi Jain and Dinesh Kumar 19.1 Introduction 399 19.2 Properties of Sodium Alginate (Na-Alg) 400 19.2.1 Thickening Property of Alginates 401 19.2.2 Gelling Property of Alginates 401 19.2.3 Film-Forming Property 402 19.2.4 Lipophilicity 402 19.2.5 Solubility 402 19.2.6 pH Sensitivity 402 19.3 Chemical Properties 402 19.4 Applications 403 19.4.1 Bone Tissue Engineering 404 19.4.2 Pharmaceutical Applications 405 19.4.2.1 Small Chemical Drug Delivery 405 19.4.2.2 Protein Delivery 406 19.4.3 Wound Dressing 406 19.4.4 Vaccine Delivery 408 19.4.5 Water Treatment Application 410 19.4.6 Alginate for Anion Removal 410 19.5 Conclusions and Prospects 414 Acknowledgments 414 Abbreviations 414 References 414 20 Marine Polysaccharides: Properties and Applications 423 Olugbenga Samuel Michael, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Ayodele Eugene Ayeni, Muhammad Akram, Inamuddin, Juliana Bunmi Adetunji, Mathew Olaniyan and Musa Abidemi Muhibi 20.1 Introduction 424 20.2 Marine Bacteria That Produce Polysaccharides 425 20.3 Marine Fungi That Produce Polysaccharide 431 20.4 Production, Extraction and Purification of Polysaccharides 431 20.4.1 Solid State Fermentation 432 20.4.2 Submerged Fermentation 432 20.4.3 Extraction and Purification of Polysaccharides 432 20.5 Characterization via Molecular, Biochemical and Cultural Characterization of Marine Polysaccharides 433 20.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendation to Knowledge 434 References 434 21 Polysaccharides: Promising Constituent for the Preparation of Nanomaterials 441 Rafeeya Shams, Quratul Eain Hyder Rizvi, Aamir Hussain Dar, Ishrat Majid, Shafat Ahmad Khan and Anurag Singh 21.1 Introduction 441 21.1.1 Classification and Types of Nanomaterials 442 21.2 Preparation of Polysaccharide-Dependent Nanomaterials 445 21.2.1 Electrospinning 445 21.2.2 Dip Coating, Film Casting, and Physical Mixing 446 21.2.3 Layer by Layer Assembly 447 21.2.4 Ionotropic Gelation, Colloidal Assembly and Coprecipitation 447 21.2.5 In Situ NP Preparation 447 21.2.6 Ionotropic Gelation 448 21.3 Biocompatibility of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials 451 21.4 Conclusions and Summary 452 References 452 22 Anticancer Potential of Polysaccharides 459 Ali Raza, Javed Iqbal, Muhammad Usman Munir, Anila Asif and Arsalan Ahmed   22.1 Introduction 459 22.2 Mode of Action 460 22.2.1 Cell-Cycle Arrest 460 22.2.2 Receptor 460 22.2.3 Immunomodulatory Effect 461 22.2.4 Chemotherapy Enhancement 461 22.2.5 Mitochondrial Membrane Inhibition 461 22.2.6 Free Radicals Capture 462 22.3 Polysaccharides in Cancer Treatment 462 22.3.1 Lung Cancer 463 22.3.2 Blood Cancer 464 22.3.3 Liver Cancer 465 22.3.4 Gastric and Colon Cancer 465 22.3.5 Bladder and Kidney Cancer 466 22.3.6 Breast Cancer 466 22.3.7 Cervical Cancer 467 22.4 Polysaccharides in Conventional Therapies 468 22.4.1 Chemotherapy 468 22.4.2 Radiotherapy 469 22.4.3 Surgery 469 22.4.4 Phototherapy 469 22.4.5 Drug Delivery 469 22.4.6 Bioimaging 470 22.4.7 Food Supplement 470 22.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Trends 471 References 471 23 Polysaccharide-Based Membrane for Packaging Applications 477 Saumya Pandey 23.1 Introduction 477 23.2 Polysaccharides as Biomaterials for Biodegradable Packaging 478 23.2.1 Polysaccharides Extracted From Animals 481 23.2.1.1 Chitin and Chitosan 481 23.2.2 Polysaccharides Extracted From Plants 481 23.2.2.1 Cellulose 481 23.2.2.2 Pectin 482 23.2.2.3 Starch 483 23.2.2.4 Galactomannans 484 23.2.3 Polysaccharides Extracted From Algae 484 23.2.3.1 Carrageenan 484 23.2.3.2 Alginate 484 23.2.4 Polysaccharides Synthesized by Microorganisms 485 23.2.4.1 Pullulan 485 23.2.4.2 Gellan Gum 485 23.2.4.3 Xanthan Gum 486 23.2.4.4 FucoPol 486 23.3 Properties of Polysaccharide-Based Packaging Film or Coating 486 23.3.1 Barrier Properties of Film or Coatings 486 23.3.2 Mechanical Properties of the Film 488 23.4 Polysaccharides-Based Nanocomposites Packaging 489 23.5 Polysaccharides-Based Films and Coatings in Food Packaging Applications 490 23.5.1 Food Preservation and Self-Life Extension 490 23.5.2 Antimicrobial Coating 490 23.5.3 Delaying of Post-Harvest Ripening 491 23.5.4 Restoring Color, Aroma and Nutritional Value 491 23.5.5 Antioxidant Properties 491 23.6 Conclusion and Prospects 492 References 493 24 Applications of Polysaccharides in Cancer Treatment 501 Nivedita Pujari S., Joy Hoskeri H., Anand I. Torvi and Arun K. Shettar 24.1 Introduction 501 24.2 Types of Polysaccharides Used in Cancer Treatment 502 24.2.1 Animal Polysaccharides 502 24.2.2 Vegetal Polysaccharides 503 24.2.3 Microorganism and Fungi Polysaccharides 503 24.3 Mechanism of Polysaccharides as Anticancer Agent 504 24.3.1 Actions of Polysaccharides as Immunological Functioning 504 24.3.2 Role of Polysaccharides in Cell Signaling 505 24.3.3 Effect of Polysaccharides in Apoptosis and Cell Cycle Arrest 506 24.3.4 Antitumor Effect of Polysaccharides 506 24.4 Usage of Polysaccharides in Preclinical and Clinical Models of Cancer 507 24.4.1 In-Vitro Cell Line Model 507 24.4.2 Polysaccharides as Antitumor/Anticancer in Animal Model Study 508 24.4.3 Clinical Trials of Polysaccharides in Cancer Treatment 508 24.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 510 References 510 25 Application of Chitosan-Based Catalysts for Heterocycles Synthesis and Other Reactions 517 Yadavalli Venkata Durga Nageswar, Nelson L.C. Domingues, Ramesh Katla and Rakhi Katla 25.1 Introduction 517 25.2 Recent Research Reports 518 25.2.1 Furans 518 25.2.2 Pyrazoles 518 25.2.3 Imidazoles 519 25.2.4 Oxazoles 520 25.2.5 Thiazoles 521 25.2.6 Triazoles 522 25.2.7 Tetrazoles 523 25.2.8 Pyridines 524 25.2.9 Quinolines 524 25.2.10 Pyrazines 525 25.2.11 Pyrimidines 525 25.2.12 Quinazolines 527 25.2.13 Phthalazines 527 25.2.14 Perimidines 527 25.2.15 Pyrans 528 25.2.16 Coumarins 530 25.2.17 Chromenes 530 25.2.18 Other Reactions 531 25.2.18.1 Oxidations 531 25.2.18.2 Reductions 533 25.2.18.3 Coupling/Condensation Reactions 533 25.2.18.4 Isomerization 537 25.2.18.5 Ring Opening 538 25.3 Conclusion 538 References 539 26 Preparation and Applications of Polysaccharide-Based Composites 543 Sadaf Ahmad, Bushra Anees Palvasha, Bakar bin Khatab Abbasi, Muhammad Shahid Nazir, Majid Niaz Akhtar, Zaman Tahir and Mohd Azmuddin Abdullah 26.1 Introduction 544 26.2 Types 544 26.2.1 Cellulose 544 26.2.2 Starch 545 26.2.3 Glycogen 545 26.2.4 Chitin 545 26.2.5 Pectin 546 26.3 Importance 546 26.4 Fabrication and Applications of Polysaccharide-Inorganic-Based Composites 547 26.4.1 Cellulose–Inorganic Materials 547 26.4.2 Starch–Inorganic Materials 553 26.4.3 Pectin–Inorganic Materials 557 26.4.4 Chitin and Chitosan–Inorganic Materials 559 26.4.5 Polysaccharides–Metal Organic Frameworks 561 26.5 Recent Applications 564 26.6 Conclusion 565 References 566 27 Polysaccharide-Based Liquid Crystals 573 Sumaira Saleem, Gulzar Muhammad, Muhammad Mudassir Iqbal, Muhammad Ajaz Hussain, Muhammad Arshad Raza, Zahid Shafiq and Haseeba Razzaq 27.1 Introduction 573 27.2 Polysaccharides-Based Liquid Crystals 575 27.2.1 Cellulose-Based Liquid Crystals 575 27.2.2 Liquid Crystals From Cellulose Derivatives 578 27.2.3 Amylose-Based Liquid Crystals 579 27.2.4 Dextrin-Based Liquid Crystals 582 27.2.5 Chitin-Based Liquid Crystals 584 27.2.6 Schizophyllan-Based Liquid Crystals 585 27.3 Conclusion 586 References 586 28 Patents on Polysaccharide Applications 591 Nadhratun Naiim Mobarak, Sharifah Nabihah Syed Jaafar and Mohamad Azuwa Mohamed 28.1 Introduction 591 28.2 Polysaccharides in Medical Application 595 28.3 Polysaccharides in Cosmetic Application 597 28.4 Polysaccharides in Battery Components 600 28.5 Polysaccharides in Paper Manufacture 601 28.6 Conclusion 601 References 602 29 Applications of Polysaccharides in Controlled Release Drug Delivery System 607 Muhammad Harris Shoaib, Muhammad Sikandar, Farrukh Rafiq Ahmed, Fatima Ramzan Ali, Faaiza Qazi, Rabia Ismail Yousuf, Asma Irshad, Sabahat Jabeen and Kamran Ahmed 29.1 Introduction 607 29.2 Polysaccharides From Plant Sources and Their Derivatives 608 29.2.1 Cellulose 608 29.2.2 Cellulose Derivatives 609 29.2.2.1 Cellulose Ethers 609 29.2.2.2 Cellulose Esters 612 29.2.3 Hemicellulose 613 29.2.3.1 Mannans 614 29.2.4 Starch 617 29.2.5 Pectin 618 29.2.6 Lignin 619 29.2.7 Inulin 620 29.3 Gums 620 29.3.1 Exudate Gums 620 29.3.1.1 Gum Arabic (Gum Acacia) 620 29.3.1.2 Gum Tragacanth 621 29.3.1.3 Gum Karaya 621 29.3.2 Mucilage Gums 622 29.3.2.1 Okra Gum 622 29.3.2.2 Khaya Gum 622 29.3.2.3 Hakea Gum 622 29.3.2.4 Cassia tora Gum 623 29.3.2.5 Albizia Gum 623 29.3.2.6 Prunus cerasoides Gum 623 29.3.2.7 Tamarind Gum 623 29.3.2.8 Cissus populnea Gum 624 29.4 Polysaccharides From Algal Sources 624 29.4.1 Alginates 624 29.4.2 Galactans 626 29.4.3 Carrageenan 626 29.4.4 Agar 627 29.4.5 Agarose 628 29.5 Polysaccharides From Fungal Sources 629 29.5.1 Scleroglucan 629 29.5.2 Beta-Glucan 629 29.5.3 Pullulan 630 29.6 Polysaccharides From Animals Sources and Their Derivatives 631 29.6.1 Chitin 631 29.6.2 Chitosan 632 29.6.3 Hyaluronic Acid 633 29.6.4 Glycogen 633 29.6.5 Chondroitin Sulfate 633 29.6.6 Dermatan Sulfate 634 29.6.7 Gelatin 634 29.7 Polysaccharides From Microorganisms 635 29.7.1 Curdlan 635 29.7.2 Xanthan Gum 636 29.7.3 Gellan Gum 637 References 637 30 Applications of Polysaccharides in Nutrition and Medicine 657 Nivedita Pujari S., Arun K. Shettar and Joy Hoskeri H. 30.1 Introduction 657 30.2 Sources of Polysaccharides 658 30.2.1 Polysaccharides in Dietary Fibers 658 30.2.2 Polysaccharides in Plants 659 30.2.3 Polysaccharides in Algae and Lichens 659 30.2.4 Polysaccharides in Fungi 660 30.2.5 Polysaccharides From Bacteria 661 30.2.6 Polysaccharides From Other Sources 662 30.3 Role of Polysaccharides in Nutrition 662 30.3.1 Polysaccharides in Food 662 30.3.2 Polysaccharides as Energy Sources 663 30.3.3 Health Impact of Polysaccharides 664 30.3.4 Nutritional Aspect of Polysaccharides 664 30.4 Biomedical Applications of Polysaccharides 665 30.4.1 Polysaccharides as Antimicrobial and Antiviral 665 30.4.2 Polysaccharides as Antitumor/Anticancer 666 30.4.3 Polysaccharides as Anti-Obesity and Anti-Hypercholesterolemic Agents 667 30.4.4 Polysaccharides as Antidiabetic Agents 669 30.4.5 Polysaccharides as Immune Modulator Agent 670 30.4.6 Polysaccharides as Anti-Inflammatory Agent 671 30.4.7 Polysaccharides as Neuro-Protective Agent 672 30.4.8 Polysaccharides as a Source of Antioxidant 672 30.4.9 Polysaccharides in Wound Healing and Wound Dressing 673 30.5 Conclusion 674 References 674 31 Synthetic Polysaccharide-Based Vaccines: Progress and Achievements 683 Rafig Gurbanov 31.1 A Brief History of Vaccination 683 31.2 The Leverage of Synthetic Polysaccharide-Based Vaccines Over Natural Polysaccharide-Based Vaccines 684 31.3 The Principles of Synthetic Polysaccharide-Based Vaccines 686 31.3.1 Tumor Vaccines 689 31.3.2 Leishmaniasis Vaccines 690 31.3.3 Human Immunodeficiency Virus Vaccines 690 31.3.4 Bacterial Vaccines 691 31.4 The Opportunities and Prospects of Synthetic Polysaccharide-Based Vaccine Technologies 692 References 694 32 Polysaccharides Derived From Natural Sources: A Panacea to Health and Nutritional Challenges 701 Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Muhammad Akram, Olugbenga Samuel Michael, Khuram Shahzad, Ayodele Eugene Ayeni, Sidra Hasan, Juliana Bunmi Adetunji, Syed Muhammad Hasan, Inamuddin, Mathew Olaniyan and Musa Abidemi Muhibi 32.1 Introduction 702 32.2 Different Types of Polysaccharides Derived From Different Natural Sources 703 32.2.1 Polysaccharides Derived From Plants and Their Applications 704 32.2.2 Animal Derived Polysaccharides and Their Applications 705 32.2.2.1 Chitosan and Chitin 705 32.2.2.2 Heparin and Heparin Sulfates 706 32.2.2.3 Hyaluronic Acid 707 32.2.3 Microorganisms Derived Polysaccharides and Their Applications 707 32.2.3.1 Alginate 707 32.2.3.2 Dextran 708 32.2.3.3 Fucoidans 708 32.2.3.4 Spirulina 708 32.2.4 Homoglycans 709 32.2.4.1 Starch and Hetastarch 709 32.2.4.2 Cellulose 709 32.2.4.3 Inulin 710 32.2.4.4 Chitin and Chitosan 710 32.2.4.5 Glycogen 712 32.2.4.6 Heteroglycans and Other Polysaccharides 712 32.2.4.7 Glycosaminoglycans Significance 715 32.2.4.8 Chondroitin Sulfates 715 32.2.4.9 Hyaluronic Acid 715 32.2.4.10 Alginic Acid 715 32.2.4.11 Mucopolysaccharidoses 717 32.3 Production, Extraction and Purification of Polysaccharides 718 32.3.1 Solid State Fermentation 719 32.3.2 Submerged Fermentation 719 32.3.3 Extraction and Purification Process of Polysaccharides 720 32.4 Specific Examples of Polysaccharides and Their Various Applications in Nutrition and Medicine 720 32.4.1 Schizophyllan 720 32.4.1.1 Antitumor Activity of Schizophyllan 721 32.4.1.2 Anti-Inflammatory Activity of Schizophyllan 721 32.4.1.3 Immunomodulatory Activity of Schizophyllan 721 32.4.1.4 Prebiotic Potential of Schizophyllan 722 32.4.2 Pleuran and Others Polysaccharides From Pleurotus spp. 722 32.4.2.1 Specific Nutritional and Beneficial Functions of Pleurotus Polysaccharides 722 32.4.3 Scleroglucan 723 32.4.3.1 Applications for Nutritional and Medicinal Purposes Derived From Scleroglucan 723 32.4.4 Curdlan 724 32.4.5 Other Essential Polysaccharides With Medical Significance 725 32.5 Conclusion and Recommendation to Knowledge 725 References 725 Index 739

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Inamuddin PhD is an assistant professor at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia and is also an assistant professor in the Department of Applied Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in multidisciplinary fields of analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy and environmental science. He has published about 150 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and edited 60 books with multiple well-known publishers. Mohd Imran Ahamed PhD is in the Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has published several research and review articles in SCI journals. His research focuses on ion-exchange chromatography, wastewater treatment and analysis, actuators and electrospinning. Rajender Boddula PhD is currently working for the Chinese Academy of Sciences President’s International Fellowship Initiative (CAS-PIFI) at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST, Beijing). His academic honors include multiple fellowships and scholarships, and he has published many scientific articles in international peer-reviewed journals, edited books with numerous publishers and has authored 20 book chapters. Tariq Altalhi PhD is Head of the Department of Chemistry and Vice Dean of Science College at Taif University, Saudi Arabia. He received his PhD from the University of Adelaide, Australia in 2014. His research interests include developing advanced chemistry-based solutions for solid and liquid municipal waste management, converting plastic bags to carbon nanotubes, and fly ash to efficient adsorbent material.

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