Overview

This book enumerates the unique challenges, barriers, needs, and trauma of being an African American in the United States, and at the same time highlights what needs to be done to improve and foster the mental health healing of this population. This includes practical applications and strategic solutions that work, such as the family togetherness and ardent spiritual beliefs that form the basis for resilient and vibrant mental health among African Americans.  This contributed volume features the authorship of counseling professionals, most of whom are African American themselves. Because of their own personal experiences, they are able to emphasize cogent helping strategies for this population, to show how to move forward with encouragement. The book also highlights ways to promote life that is mentally healthy and holistic for African Americans. Topics covered within the chapters include: Mental Health Challenges Unique to African American Children and Adolescents Diagnosis Issues with African Americans  Culture of Family Togetherness, Emotional Resilience, and Spiritual Lifestyles Inherent in African Americans from the Time of Slavery Until Now  The Trauma of Being an African American in the 21st Century  Training, Recruiting, and Retaining African American Mental Health Professionals African Americans and Mental Health: Practical and Strategic Solutions to Barriers, Needs, and Challenges is an essential resource for helping professionals who work with this population, including psychiatrists, counselors, psychologists, social workers, and other mental health professionals. The book also should be of interest to researchers, instructors, and students in Counseling, Social Work, and Psychology.

Full Product Details

Author:   Mary Olufunmilayo Adekson
Publisher:   Springer Nature Switzerland AG
Imprint:   Springer Nature Switzerland AG
Edition:   1st ed. 2021
Weight:   0.430kg
ISBN:  

9783030771300

ISBN 10:   303077130
Pages:   145
Publication Date:   26 October 2021
Audience:   Professional and scholarly ,  Professional & Vocational
Format:   Hardback
Publisher's Status:   Active
Availability:   Manufactured on demand  
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Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction: Who are African Americans? (Beverly O’Bryant, Coppin State University, Baltimore, Maryland) (20 pages) Chapter 1 provides an operational definition of African Americans as well as multiple definitions of African Americans used in similar contexts. Emphasis is then placed on the review of the history of African Americans from the 1800s to the present. The Chapter is divided into 6 subsections.   Subsection One: The History of African Americans (1800-1900) Subsection Two:  The History of African Americans (1901-1950) Subsection Three: The History of African Americans (1951-2000) Section Four: The History of African Americans (2001-2020) Section Five: An Expanded view and definition of ‘Who are African Americans’ Chapter 2: Barriers and access to mental health care for African Americans (Henry L. Harris, University of North Carolina, Charlotte, North Carolina; & LaTonya Summers, University of Jacksonville, Jacksonville, Florida) (20 pages) Although individuals have greater access to mental health services than ever before, it is important to be aware of societal and cultural barriers that hinder minority groups from seeking care. For example, when considering the quality and availability of culturally-responsive care provided to African Americans, several inequalities exist (Psychiatry.org, 2017). One of the greatest challenges African Americans face to seeking help is stigma associated with mental illness. Gary (2005), defines stigma as negative beliefs, attitudes, behaviors, and thoughts that may cause individuals or society to treat those with a mental illness in a prejudicial manner. Other barriers include institutional discrimination, religious beliefs and spiritual activities (Taylor, Chatters & Abelson, 2012), cultural distrust of health care and mental health systems, lack of healthcare insurance, and mental health illiteracy. This chapter provides a brief history of mental illness among African Americans, identification of social and cultural barriers, implications for improving access to care (i.e., providing culturally-specific professional development, promoting culturally-relevant mental health literacy, addressing issues related to advocacy and activism, etc.), and concludes with culturally-responsive practices. Chapter 3:  Challenges mostly unique to African Americans  (Linwood Vereen, Shippensburg University, Shippensburg, Pennsylvania) (20 pages) This Chapter focuses on the challenges mostly unique to African Americans that impact their life and existence. The unique challenges described within this chapter are race-based individual, community, and systemic biases aimed at African Americans. Specifically, in this chapter it is important to have the reader see how race-based bias, discrimination, and prejudice are the challenges that impact the education, social mobility, and socioeconomic status of the African American. The chapter continues to focus on how these unique challenges impact the daily functions of African Americans in ways such as unfair housing practices and living conditions. From here it is also important to point out how these race-based challenges of systemic discriminatory practices impact community and are being combatted through resilience and community advocacy, which are strengths of the African American community. Chapter 4: African Americans and Mental Health: Challenges and Opportunities (Brittany Dennis, Emporia State University, Emporia, Kansas) (20 pages) Mental illness is pervasive in the African-American community (APA, 2017; Degruy, 2005; Fripp & Carlson, 2017; Snowden, 1999; Williams, 2008). According to the American Psychiatric Association (2017), the majority of African Americans who have mental illness do not receive the treatment they need to effectively manage their conditions. Barriers impede access to quality care. These barriers include stigma, poverty, distrust of healthcare professionals (Washington, 2006), deficiencies in the number of culturally competent practitioners, and misinformation (i.e., spiritual/religious beliefs) (APA, 2017; Fripp & Carlson, 2017). These barriers result in individuals only seeking care in emergencies (APA, 2017; Snowden, 1998; Thorn & Sarata, 1998). Another factor is institutional racism (Fripp & Carlson, 2017). Generational trauma impacts how African Americans experience mental distress (Degruy, 2005; Williams-Washington & Mills, 2018). All of this contributes to ongoing health disparities within the African American community. This chapter brings out the challenges African Americans experience with accessing and acquiring quality care in the United States and explores common and newer strategies designed to foster a culture of improved mental health and wellness.  Chapter 5: Unique mental health challenges of African American children and adolescents (Keith Dempsey, George Fox University, Newberg, Oregon & Kimberly N. Frazier, Louisiana State University, New Orleans, Louisiana) (20 pages) This chapter explores the historical context that contributed to the current mental health challenges that are uniquely experienced by African American children and adolescents in the United States (Boyd-Franklin, 2003; Catherall, 2004). The chapter discusses how lack of positive reflection of self, criminalization, and race-based misdiagnosis results in untreated race-based trauma (Carter, 2007; Grills, Aird, & Rowe, 2016). The chapter discusses how trauma can manifest in mental health issues in similar and different ways in African American girls and boys (Lamb, S., 2006; McGoldrick, Giordano, Gracia-Preto, 2005; Parham, 2002). Finally the chapter discusses positive mental health coping mechanisms of African American adolescent girls and boys associated with growing up in the current climate (Boyd-Franklin, 2003; Catherall, 2004; McGoldrick, Giordano, Gracia-Preto, 2005; Parham, 2002). Chapter 6:  Diagnosis issues with African Americans (Jacqueline Smith, Regent University, Virginia Beach, Virginia) (20 pages) In the United States, the historical manifestation of racism has had a significant impact on the diagnosis of African Americans. Two aspects of racism, the belief of inferiority directed toward persons of color, and the second, the belief in the superiority of the values, customs, beliefs, and traditions of White Euro-American cultures, permeate assessment, diagnostic, and treatment processes (Sue and Sue, 2019). Failure to acknowledge the sociopolitical impact of racism on mental health care and the stigma and myths surrounding mental illness have resulted in continued misdiagnosis and the long-standing skepticism, mistrust, dissatisfaction, and poor utilization of mental health care services by African Americans (APA, 2017; Suite, Bril, Primm, & Harrison-Ross, 2007; Smith, 2015). Cultural alertness and multicultural training are needed to ensure cultural competence among White mental health providers to reduce misdiagnosis, inadequate treatment, and the disparity of mental health care in the African American community (Griffith, Jones, & Stewart, 2019; Hampton, Gullotta, & Crowel, 2010). Chapter 7:  Culture of family togetherness, emotional resilience, and spiritual lifestyles inherent in African Americans from the time of slavery until now (Fawn Robinson, Carlow University, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania; Quiana Golphin, California University of Pennsylvania, California, Pennsylvania) (20 pages) First, this chapter provides a foundation of understanding African American culture, highlighting essential times in history where African Americans' cultures, family structures, and spiritual relationships were altered due the systemic oppression (Alexander, 2012; Bell, Funk, Joshi, & Valdivia, 2016). Second, this chapter focuses on important cultural aspects of family togetherness (presence, bonding, and support), emotional resilience (coping with hardships), and spiritual relationships (higher beings and connections) that lead to mental health protective factors (Chatters, Nguyen, Taylor, & Hope, 2018; Donahoo & Caffey, 2010; Hayward & Krause, 2015; Taylor & Chatters, 2010). Finally, the chapter concludes with a discussion of appropriate techniques, methods, and mental health treatments for African Americans (Chatters, Nguyen, Taylor, & Hope, 2018; Plunkett, 2014). In its entirety, the chapter is influenced by the ACA Code of Ethics and MSJCC and ASERVIC Competencies.  Chapter 8: The trauma related to being an African American in the 21st century (Kimberly N. Frazier, Louisiana State University, New Orleans, Louisiana & Keith Dempsey, George Fox University, Newberg, Oregon) (20 pages) This chapter explores the historical context that has shaped the African American experience and contributed to the trauma of living and existing in the United States as an African American (Lee, 2013; Parham, 2002). The chapter discusses traumatic stressors associated with covert and overt racism due to being a marginalized group in America that leads to physical and psychological trauma. The chapter also discusses how the lack of positive representation of African Americans has led to the stereotypes of criminal behavior, perceived laziness, and untreated race-based trauma (Carter, 2007; Grills, Aird & Rowe, 2016). Finally, the chapter discusses positive coping mechanisms African Americans have employed to cope with trauma and stressors associated with living in the United States (Lee, 2013; Parham, 2002; Ratts, Sing, Butler & McCullough, 2015). Chapter 9:  Recruiting, training, and retaining African American mental health professionals (Jude T. Austin II, Mary Hardin-Baylor University, Belton Texas & Julius A. Austin, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana) (20 pages) In a recent conversation that one of the prospective authors had with an African American student, she complained about not seeing herself represented in the counseling theories. The author's advice as a counselor educator to the student was to complete her graduate degree and go on to get her doctoral degree, where she can develop and empirically prove her own theoretical approach. She looked stunned, unaware that this was an option. This anecdote captures the larger struggles within the profession as it relates to recruiting, training, and retaining African American mental health professionals. There is a cultural zeitgeist shift within the counseling profession and about the profession from the outside. The landscape of graduate programs and the clients we serve are becoming increasingly diverse. Faculty are not. Researchers are not. Supervisors are not. And counseling professionals are not. Why and what can we as a profession do about this phenomenon. This chapter focuses on answering those questions. Extant literature regarding ways to recruit, train, and retain African American mental health professionals also are discussed. Chapter 10: The mental health needs of some unique groups within African American populations (Julius A. Austin, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana & Jude T. Austin II, Mary Hardin-Baylor University, Belton, Texas) (25 pages) African Americans share the same mental health issues as the rest of the population, with arguably even greater stressors due to racism, prejudice, and economic disparities. According to Alvidrez et al., (2008), African Americans who are already mental health consumers explained that depression and anxiety would be considered “crazy” in their social circles. Increased stressors, combined with social pressure or persecution, damages generations of African American families. When African Americans fit into a unique group, then mental health needs escalate. This chapter discusses the complex and layered mental health needs of some unique groups within the African American community, including LGBT, the Elderly, single mothers, single fathers, daughters and sons who grew up without fathers, those incarcerated, and the economically disadvantaged. Chapter 11: African Americans: Roads to living enhanced and improved mentally healthy lives (Ariel Encalade Mitchell, Xavier University of Louisiana, New Orleans, Louisiana) (20 pages) Recent research in mental health counseling discussed ways that African American communities are embracing counseling interventions, as well as the barriers that still remain. Black people do not trust figures that represent a White status quo. Black people think therapy is for White people, and that therapists are White. The distrust of macro-aggressive systems trickles down into mental health and wellness practices. Many African Americans seek their mental health support through their religious and faith-based communities (Elans, Bell, et al., 2018). However, when mandated or through personal selection, Black clients left therapy feeling like they gained new insight into themselves and coping strategies for their situation. Once the stigma of counseling is met with the will for change, change happens. There is no one answer, yet researchers are offering a litany of progressive suggestions that are explored in this chapter.   Chapter 12: Solution-oriented intervention models for African Americans' mental health (David Julius Ford, Monmouth University, West Long Branch, New Jersey) (20 pages) According to the National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI, 2017), racial/ethnic minorities are less likely to have access to mental health services than non-Hispanic Whites. The author of this chapter seeks to provide interventions that counselors can use to provide culturally responsive counseling grounded in culturally sensitive frameworks. The author explains Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Model (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), the Multicultural and Social Justice Counseling Competencies (Ratts, Singh, Nassar-McMillan, Butler, & McCullough, 2015), and Cultural Broaching (Day-Vines, Wood, Grothaus, Craigen, Holman, Dotson-Black, & Douglass, 2015). After reading this chapter, counselors will be able to implement these models to help break down the barriers to mental health that Black/African American clients experience. Advocacy is part of our ethical duty to our clients, and these frameworks provide foundation for advocacy at microsystemic and macrosystemic levels. Black/African American clients face barriers to mental health at both levels, and advocacy is needed to break down those barriers. The author also seeks to provide systemic advocacy interventions to impact the broader Black/African American population. The chapter has a case scenario to show the reader how to implement these models. Chapter 13: Practical strategic improvements for African American mental health (Lynn Bohecker, Liberty University, Lynchburg, Virginia & Crasha Townsend, Northwest Nazarene University, Nampa, Idaho). Current literature abounds regarding issues related to African American mental health (Barnett; McFarland, Miller, Lowe, & Hatcher, 2019; Evans & Sheu, 2018; Hankerson, Wells, Sullivan, Johnson, Smith, Crayton…& Rhem, 2018; Hastings & Snowden, 2018; Mouzon & McLean, 2017; Turner, Hastings, & Neighbors, 2019). Problems such as the relationships of discrimination, socioeconomic status, and internalized racism with mental health among African Americans and stigma for seeking mental health services have been researched and documented (Evans & Sheu, 2018; Hastings & Snowden, 2018; Mouzon & McLean, 2017; Turner, Hastings, & Neighbors, 2019). However, there is a dearth of information on improving African American mental health. This chapter begins by providing an overview of some of the issues specific to African American mental health and barriers to effective treatment. The authors present these issues through the lens of Critical Race Theory, which is used to examine African American mental health within the contexts of race, power, and privilege (Crenshaw, 1989; Crenshaw, Gotanda, Peller, & Thomas, 1995; Delgado & Stefancic, 2017; Trahan & Lemberger, 2014).  There is an inherent need as a culture to listen, to learn, to begin to better understand African American mental health issues, and to consider interactions of individual- and contextual-level factors. In order to develop effective mental health strategies, information needs to be grounded in the population. To combat narrow constructions of African American experiences, one aspect of a paradigm shift is to center them as the author of their own experiences (Howard, 2013). For example, the focus on peer-reviewed scholarly publications excludes voices such as those found in organizations like Black Lives Matter, Say Her Name, My Brother’s Keeper, Color of Change, Sister Love, and the Common Ground Foundation that have been part of efforts to increase awareness of the lived experiences of people of color. The things that can be learned from watching these non-traditional groups, can reveal strategies for working with the African American population in America. Through listening to African American voices, specific practical strategies for improving African American mental health are presented.    Chapter 14: Treatment strategies and healings related to African American mental health (Victoria D. Austin, Clinical Faculty, Southern New Hampshire University, Manchester, New Hampshire) To understand how best to address the mental health needs of African Americans (AA), it is vital to recognize the barriers that prevent treatment. This chapter first briefly explores the common barriers to effective mental health treatment in the AA community, such as social inequalities, low representation in the mental health field, lack of awareness about mental illness, and stigma (Haynes et. Al, 2017; (National Alliance on Mental Health, n.d.), which have been topics of discussion in the previous chapters. The sociocultural, relational, and historical factors that counselors need to be aware of when working with AAs (Toldson, Anyanwu, & Maxwell, 2016), and the availability, accessibility, and use of mental health resources (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014) are discussed. When counselors and counselor educators understand this information, they can appropriately advocate for individual clients and proper program development (Mental Health America, 2014). Some of the most common mental health issues that members of AA experience, such as posttraumatic stress disorder, major depression, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (National Alliance on Mental Health, n.d.; Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2014), are delineated in this chapter. Research related to forms of treatment models that have reportedly been effectively successful when working with members of the AA community, like multicultural counseling, social justice counseling, dialectical behavioral therapy, trauma-informed care, expressive arts, and spirituality integrated counseling, all different theoretical orientations (Barnicot & Priebe, 2013; Bryant-Davis, 2005; Fallot & Harris, 2002; Malchiodi, 2007; Ratts et al., 2015; Zimmerman, 1995), are explored and discussed in this chapter. Lastly, recommendations for improved treatment strategies that can bring about how mental health services are addressed and treated in the AA community (Haynes et. al, 2017) are discussed.   Epilogue:  Where do we go from here (Mary Olufunmilayo Adekson, Retired Counselor Educator)  (10 pages)   List of prospective contributors Mary Olufunmilayo Adekson, Retired Counselor Educator. Jude T. Austin II, Assistant Professor, Counseling Department, Mary Hardin-Baylor University, Belton Texas.  Julius A. Austin, Director, Office of Substance Abuse and Recovery, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana.   Victoria D. Austin, Clinical Faculty, Counseling Department, Southern New Hampshire University, Manchester, New Hampshire.  Lynn Bohecker, Associate Professor, Counselor Education and Family Studies, Liberty University, Lynchburg, Virginia. Keith Dempsey, Associate Professor & Chair, Counseling Department, George Fox University, Newberg, Oregon.  Brittany Dennis, Assistant Professor, Counseling Department, Emporia State University, Emporia, Kansas.  David Julius Ford, Assistant Professor, Counseling Department, Monmouth University, West Long Branch, New Jersey.  Kimberly N. Frazier, Associate Professor, School of Allied & Health Professions, Louisiana State University, New Orleans, Louisiana.  Quiana Golphin, Assistant Professor, Counseling Department, California University of Pennsylvania, California, Pennsylvania.  Hank Harris, Professor, Counseling Department, University of North Carolina at Charlotte, North Carolina. Ariel Encalade Mitchell, Counseling Department, Xavier University of Louisiana, New Orleans, Louisiana. Beverly O’Bryant , Dean, College of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Coppin State University, Baltimore, Maryland. Fawn Robinson, Assistant Professor, Psychology and Counseling Department, Carlow University, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania.  Jacqueline Smith, Associate Professor & Counseling Department Chair, School of Psychology and Counseling, Regent University, Virginia Beach, Virginia. LaTonya Summers, Assistant Professor, University of Jacksonville, Jacksonville, Florida.  Crasha Townsend, Educational Leadership Department, Northwest Nazarene University, Nampa, Idaho.  Linwood Vereen, Associate Professor, Counseling and College Student Personnel Department, Shippensburg University, Shippensburg, Pennsylvania. 

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Mary Olufunmilayo Adekson, PhD has authored two books and one book chapter. She has edited The Handbook of Counseling and Counselor Education and Beginning your Counseling Career: Graduate Preparation and Beyond, and also has edited the current volume, African Americans and Mental Health: Practical and Strategic Solutions to Barriers, Needs, and Challenges. Mary also has published numerous articles related to traditional healing and counseling to date. Mary obtained her Bachelor of Arts degree from Brandeis University in Waltham, Massachusetts, where she was also a visiting undergraduate student at Harvard University.  She got her Master of Education degree from the University of Ife (now Obafemi Awolowo University) in Ile-Ife, Nigeria, and obtained her doctoral degree in Counselor Education from Ohio University in Athens.  She was the program director of the Counselor Education Department at St. Bonaventure University in Allegany, New York, during the 2011 to 2012 academic year.  Mary retired from St. Bonaventure University as a tenured faculty member in June 2014.  She occasionally writes commentaries and articles on related aspects of indigenous healing and counseling in different journals.  Mary also writes Christian books to inspire, teach, and encourage young, old and newly converted believers in Christ.  She currently is the Chief Executive Officer of Faith Diversity Consulting.

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